Everything below concerns GSSG. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Updated 2026-05-19. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Glutathione is synthesized in two ATP-dependent steps. First, gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase links glutamate and cysteine; second, glutathione synthetase adds glycine to form the complete tripeptide. The pathway is feedback-inhibited by GSH itself, which helps maintain steady intracellular levels. Tissues vary widely in glutathione content, with the liver typically containing the highest concentrations, followed by the kidneys, lungs, and erythrocytes. Because cysteine is often limiting, its availability influences synthesis rates, and regulation of this pathway varies by cell type.
Glutathione serves as a cofactor for several enzymes, including glutathione peroxidase and glutathione S-transferase. These enzymes help reduce hydrogen peroxide and lipid peroxides, and they conjugate reactive electrophiles for excretion. The molecule also acts as a reservoir for cysteine, an amino acid that is prone to oxidation. In addition, glutathione participates in the metabolism of nitric oxide, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins. Its roles extend to cell signaling, apoptosis, and the regulation of protein function through S-glutathionylation.
Glutathione supports detoxification by conjugating reactive electrophiles through glutathione S-transferases. The resulting conjugates are processed and exported, often after further metabolism. It also stores cysteine, transports amino acids across membranes through the gamma-glutamyl cycle, and assists in the maturation of iron-sulfur clusters and some prostaglandins. In plants, animals, and many microbes, the molecule appears in similar roles, but concentrations vary enormously between tissues. Liver, kidney, and red blood cells tend to contain high amounts, while blood plasma contains much less.
Glutathione is a small tripeptide built from glutamate, cysteine, and glycine. The peptide bond between glutamate and cysteine uses the gamma-carboxyl group, a linkage that resists ordinary peptidases. Cells make it in two ATP-dependent steps: gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase joins glutamate and cysteine, then glutathione synthetase adds glycine. The pathway is feedback-inhibited by glutathione itself, so intracellular levels tend to stay within a narrow range. Because cysteine is often limiting, sulfur amino acid supply influences how much glutathione a cell can produce.
In its reduced form, glutathione carries a sulfhydryl group that can donate electrons. This property lets it act as a major cellular antioxidant and redox buffer. Glutathione peroxidase uses it to reduce hydrogen peroxide and lipid peroxides, while glutathione reductase regenerates the reduced form using NADPH. The ratio of reduced glutathione to glutathione disulfide is widely used as an indicator of oxidative stress, though the ratio changes with compartment, cell type, and sample handling. Oxidized glutathione can also form mixed disulfides with proteins, affecting their activity.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical formula | C10H17N3O6S | Reduced form (GSH) |
| Molar mass | 307.32 g/mol | For GSH; GSSG is 612.63 g/mol |
| Appearance | White crystalline powder | Usually lyophilized |
| Solubility in water | Freely soluble (≥100 mg/mL) | pH dependent |
| Typical storage | -20 °C, desiccated | Protect from light and oxygen |
Quality control for glutathione focuses on identity, purity, and oxidation state. Certificates of analysis may report assay value, water content, and the presence of GSSG or other impurities. Chromatographic purity is often expressed as a percentage of peak area. Reference standards help laboratories compare results across instruments and batches. Because glutathione is a small, polar molecule, separation from cysteine, gamma-glutamylcysteine, and related thiols can be challenging. Verification often combines more than one analytical technique.
Measuring glutathione requires attention to sample preparation because the molecule oxidizes readily. Blood, tissue, and cell samples are often treated with acid to precipitate proteins and stabilize the thiol. Without such steps, GSH can convert to GSSG or form mixed disulfides during storage. Analytical methods include spectrophotometric assays, high-performance liquid chromatography, and mass spectrometry. Each approach has different sensitivity, specificity, and susceptibility to interference from related compounds in complex matrices.
Interpreting glutathione measurements requires attention to pre-analytical variables. The GSSG concentration in a sample can rise artificially during storage or processing, making the GSH/GSSG ratio unreliable if not controlled. Reference ranges vary by specimen type, assay, and population, so comparisons across studies are difficult. Plasma glutathione is low and sensitive to hemolysis, while whole blood reflects primarily erythrocyte content. Many studies measure total glutathione rather than the reduced and oxidized forms separately, which limits conclusions about redox status.
Accurate measurement of glutathione begins with careful sample handling. Because GSH oxidizes rapidly to GSSG, samples must be processed quickly or frozen immediately. Acid precipitation with metaphosphoric acid or perchloric acid is common; it lowers pH, precipitates proteins, and helps preserve the reduced form. Chelating agents such as EDTA can limit metal-catalyzed oxidation. For whole blood, hemolysis releases glutathione from erythrocytes, so plasma and serum values differ substantially from whole blood values.
Several analytical methods can quantify glutathione, including high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with UV or fluorescence detection for separating GSH and GSSG. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) offers higher specificity and sensitivity, often detecting nanomolar concentrations. The enzymatic recycling assay, often called the Tietze method, measures total glutathione by coupling reduction of GSSG to a colorimetric or fluorometric readout. Capillary electrophoresis and electrochemical detection are also used in specialized laboratories. Each method has distinct advantages and limitations regarding throughput, cost, and susceptibility to interference.
He was later threatened by the FDA with dismissal. By that time, the drug had been linked to 63 liver-failure deaths and had generated sales of more than $2.1 billion for Warner-Lambert. The drug cost $1,400 a year per patient in 1998. Pfizer, which had acquired Warner-Lambert in February 2000, reported the withdrawal of Rezulin cost $136 million.
These plans had been made some time ago." Russian military intelligence source alleged that the United States knew the date when the war in South Ossetia would begin because the United States military delegation cancelled the visit to Russia, which was scheduled on 10-14 August, on August 1 and cited the absence of the Russian permit for the flight. In late August 2008, Batu Kutelia, the deputy defence minister told the Financial Times that the decision to take Tskhinvali was made in spite of the fact that Georgia did not have enough anti-tank and air defences because "At some point there was no choice." He also said that Georgian authorities and military did not expect Russia to use a large-scale force against Georgia. In August 2008, Steven Pifer, former Ambassador to Ukraine, said that there were signs that the Russian invasion had been prepared in advance, with Russia waiting for Georgia to fall in a trap and using the Georgian response as a pretext. Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs David Miliband visited Ukraine in late August and told Ukrainians "not to provide any pretext" for Russia. He said, "The Russians have used those pretexts in the Georgian case and it's important to not repeat that." Georgian reintegration minister Temur Iakobashvili said, "The pilots we captured reported that they were mobilized days before Aug. 8.
In its Guidance for Industry "Data Integrity and Compliance With Drug CGMP" US-FDA states "it is the role of management with executive responsibility to create a quality culture where employees understand that data integrity is an organizational core value and employees are encouraged to identify and promptly report data integrity issues." Australia's Therapeutic Goods Administration has said that recent data integrity failures have raised questions about the role of quality culture in driving behaviors. In addition, non-governmental organizations such as the International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering (ISPE) and the Parenteral Drug Association (PDA) have developed information and resources to help pharmaceutical companies better understand why quality culture is important and how to assess the current situation within a site or organization.
These forms are called furanoses and pyranoses, respectively—by analogy with furan and pyran, the simplest compounds with the same carbon-oxygen ring (although they lack the carbon-carbon double bonds of these two molecules). For example, the aldohexose glucose may form a hemiacetal linkage between the hydroxyl on carbon 1 and the oxygen on carbon 4, yielding a molecule with a 5-membered ring, called glucofuranose. The same reaction can take place between carbons 1 and 5 to form a molecule with a 6-membered ring, called glucopyranose. Notice that this means that pentoses/furanoses, and hexoses/pyranoses, are not interchangeable pairs: the number of carbons in the molecule can be different from the number of atoms in the ring, as not all carbons are necessarily included in the ring backbone. Two monosaccharides can be joined by a glycosidic or ester bond into a disaccharide through a dehydration reaction during which a molecule of water is released. The reverse reaction in which the glycosidic bond of a disaccharide is broken into two monosaccharides is termed hydrolysis. The best-known disaccharide is sucrose or ordinary sugar, which consists of a glucose molecule and a fructose molecule joined. Another important disaccharide is lactose, found in milk, consisting of a glucose molecule and a galactose molecule. Lactose may be hydrolysed by lactase, and deficiency in this enzyme results in lactose intolerance. When a few (around three to six) monosaccharides are joined, it is called an oligosaccharide (oligo- meaning "few").
Ground substance is an amorphous gel-like substance in the extracellular space of animals that contains all components of the extracellular matrix (ECM) except for fibrous materials such as collagen and elastin. Ground substance is active in the development, movement, and proliferation of tissues, as well as their metabolism. Additionally, cells use it for support, water storage, binding, and a medium for intercellular exchange (especially between blood cells and other types of cells). Ground substance provides lubrication for collagen fibers. The components of the ground substance vary depending on the tissue. Ground substance is primarily composed of water and large organic molecules, such as glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), proteoglycans, and glycoproteins. GAGs are polysaccharides that trap water, giving the ground substance a gel-like texture. Important GAGs found in ground substance include hyaluronic acid, heparan sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and chondroitin sulfate. With the exception of hyaluronic acid, GAGs are bound to proteins called proteoglycans. Glycoproteins are proteins that attach components of the ground substance to one another and to the surfaces of cells. Components of the ground substance are secreted by fibroblasts. Usually it is not visible on slides, because it is lost during staining in the preparation process. Link proteins such as vinculin, spectrin and actomyosin stabilize the proteoglycans and organize elastic fibers in the ECM. Changes in the density of ground substance can allow collagen fibers to form aberrant cross-links.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The Israelites, also known as the Children of Israel, were an ancient Semitic-speaking people who lived in Canaan during the Iron Age. They are associated with Hebrews and spoke Biblical Hebrew, an archaic Hebrew language. In the biblical myth, the Israelites were divided into the Twelve Tribes of Israel and later formed the Iron Age kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Modern scholarship describes the Israelites as emerging from indigenous Canaanite populations and other peoples of the ancient Near East. The Israelite religion revolved around Yahweh, who was an ancient Semitic god with less significance in the broader Canaanite religion. Around 720 BCE, the Kingdom of Israel was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire, triggering the Assyrian captivity; and around 586 BCE, the Kingdom of Judah was conquered by the Neo-Babylonian Empire, triggering the Babylonian captivity. While most of Israel's population was irreversibly dispossessed as a result of Assyrian resettlement policy, the exiled Judahites were allowed to return and rehabilitate their country by the Achaemenid king Cyrus the Great following the fall of Babylon in 539 BCE. In the narrative of the Hebrew Bible, the Israelites were the descendants of Jacob (later known as Israel), who was a son of Isaac and thereby a grandson of Abraham. Due to a severe drought in Canaan, Jacob and his twelve sons migrated to Egypt, where each son became the eponymous progenitor of an Israelite tribe.
Palifermin (trade name Kepivance, marketed by Biovitrum) is a truncated human recombinant keratinocyte growth factor (KGF) produced in Escherichia coli. KGF stimulates the growth of cells that line the surface of the mouth and intestinal tract.
Abdul Haleem's accomplice, Muhammad Ridzuan bin Md Ali, on the other hand, was sentenced to death for drug trafficking and later hanged on 19 May 2017. After the changes to the law, the first executions to take place were those of drug traffickers Tang Hai Liang and Foong Chee Peng on 18 July 2014, after their sentences were finalized and their refusal to further appeal against their sentences.
=== Bleeding time === Bleeding time was developed as a test of platelet function by Duke in 1910. Duke's test measured the time taken for bleeding to stop from a standardized wound in the ear lobe that was blotted every 30 seconds, considering less than 3 minutes as normal. Bleeding time has low sensitivity and specificity for mild to moderate platelet disorders and is no longer recommended for screening.
December 2–3, 1989 – Malta Summit between Bush and Gorbachev, who said, "I assured the President of the United States that I will never start a hot war against the USA". December 10, 1989 – Czechoslovak President Gustáv Husák's resignation amounted to the fall of the Communist regime in Czechoslovakia, leaving Ceaușescu's Romania as the only remaining hard-line Communist regime in the Warsaw Pact. December 25, 1989 – Execution of Nicolae Ceauşescu during the Romanian Revolution against Communist Party rule. December 29, 1989 – Václav Havel assumes the presidency of Czechoslovakia at the conclusion of Velvet Revolution. December 30, 1989 – The Securitate, the secret police of Romania, is dissolved.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== See also == Cantonese salted fish Cured fish Salted squid Dried and salted cod Brining Gibbing Pickling salt Spekesild (cured, salted Atlantic herring) Surströmming (lightly-salted soured Baltic herring)
== June 23, 1915 (Wednesday) == First Battle of the Isonzo — Italy launched its first major military campaign in World War I with an army of 225,000 under command of Luigi Cadorna attacking Austro-Hungarian defense positions above the Isonzo River (now Soča) in the Alps. Battle of Bukoba — British colonial troops captured the German fort in Bukoba, German East Africa and destroyed the wireless station. Two magnitude 6.3 earthquakes struck within an hour of each other in the Imperial Valley, California. Six deaths were reported in Mexicali, Baja California, Mexico and damage costs were estimated at $900,000. German submarine SM U-40 was torpedoed and sunk in the North Sea by Royal Navy submarine HMS C24 with the loss of 38 of her 41 crew. The Royal Flying Corps decreed all aircraft with covered fuselages were to use the tricolor roundel, previously used on just the wings, on fuselage sides. Born: Aaron Robinson, American baseball player, catcher for the New York Yankees, Chicago White Sox, Detroit Tigers and Boston Red Sox from 1943 to 1951; in Lancaster, South Carolina, United States (d. 1966) Died: Ellen Hardin Walworth, 82, American historian, founder of the Daughters of the American Revolution (b. 1832)
Bupa recommends oily fish, food with tryptophan such as milk, nuts, lentils, whole grain breads, cereals, pasta, soy and chocolate, dark chocolate, the Mediterranean diet overall including vegetables, fruits, whole grains, nuts and olive oil for wellbeing. The documentary 'food matters' includes claims of well-being benefits of raw foods, which has been disputed as pseudoscience.
== Comparison to other detectors == The conversion efficiency of ions to photons by an IPD is as good as, or better than, the conversion efficiency of ions to electrons by a multichannel plate detector. Ion-to-photon detectors may also detect ions with a mass of up to around 20,000 Da, better than microchannel plates. However, the resolution of the mass spectrum from an IPD equipped spectrometer is slightly lower. The noise in the spectrum, which may come from unfocused, slow speed ions, is also slightly higher.
== Civilian career == After his retirement from the Air Force, Chain devoted himself full-time to corporate management. In March 1991 he became executive vice president for Burlington Northern Railroad, a position he held for five years. He was also special assistant to the chairman of that company in 1995 and 1996. In 1996 he became president of Quarterdeck Equity Partners, a subsidiary of Quarterdeck Investment Partners, Inc., a position he held until 2002. Chain became a member of the board of directors of Thomas Group, a management consulting company, in 1995, and was elevated to chairman of the board in 1998. He is also a director of RJ Reynolds, Inc., ConAgra Foods, Inc. and Kemper Insurance Co.. Chain's also serves as a board member of Northrop Grumman, one of the world's largest defense contractors. He gained this position in 1991 and oversaw the company's dramatic growth throughout the 1990s. John Chain was active in politics, though mostly behind the scenes. He was a Bush Pioneer in 2000, meaning that he gathered $100,000 for George W. Bush's 2000 presidential campaign. He was also a member of the Council on Foreign Relations. Chain died in his sleep at the age of 86 in July 2021.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Glutathione is a tripeptide of three amino acids: glutamate, cysteine, and glycine. The cysteine residue provides the sulfhydryl group that gives the molecule its reducing properties.
GSH is the reduced form, which contains a free sulfhydryl group. GSSG is the oxidized form, formed when two GSH molecules join through a disulfide bond. The ratio of GSH to GSSG is often used to assess cellular redox status.
No, glutathione is synthesized endogenously in most cells. It is not classified as an essential nutrient because the body can produce it from amino acid precursors. Dietary sources exist, but they are not required to maintain life.
It is a tripeptide of glutamate, cysteine, and glycine. The glutamate-cysteine bond is unusual because it forms through the gamma-carboxyl group.